The Discovery of the Source of the Nile

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The Discovery of The Source of the Nile

by John Hanning Speke

John Hanning Speke, born 1827. Served in the Punjab but left
in 1854 to explore Somaliland. Discovered Lake Tanganyika with
Burton, and Lake Victoria independently. Was, with Grant,
the first European to cross equatorial africa. Died 1864.

Editor's Note

John Hanning Speke was a man of thirty-six, when his Nile Journal
appeared. He had entered the army in 1844, and completed ten
years of service in India, serving through the Punjab Campaign.
Already he had conceived the idea of exploring Africa, before his
ten years were up, and on their conclusion he was appointed a
member of the expedition preparing to start under Sir Richard
(then Lieutenant Burton) for the Somali country. He was wounded
by the Somalis, and returned to England on sick leave; the
Crimean War then breaking out, be served through it, and later,
December 1856, joined another expedition under Burton. Then it
was that the possibility of the source of the Nile being traced
to one of the inland lakes seems to have struck him.

Burton's illness prevented him accompanying Speke on the latter's
visit to the lake now known as Victoria Nyanza. During this
expedition Speke reached the most southerly point of the lake,
and gave it its present name. Speke arrived back in England in
the spring of 1859, Burton being left behind on account of his
illness. The relations between the two had become strained, and
this was accentuated by Speke's hast to publish the account of
his explorations. He was given the command of another expedition
which left England in April 1860, in company with Captain James
Augustus Grant, to ascertain still further if the Victoria Nyanza
were indeed the source of the Nile. He met Sir Samuel Baker, to
whom he gave valuable assistance, and who with his clue
discovered the third lake, Albert Nyanza.

Speke telegraphed early in 1863, that the Nile source was traced.
Returning to England that year he met with an ovation, and
addressed a special meeting of the Geographical Society, and the
same year, 1863, published his "Journal of the Discovery of the
Nile." Opposed in his statements by Burton and M'Queen (The Nile
Basin, 1864"), it was arranged that he and Burton should meet for
a debate, when on the very day fixed, Speke accidentally shot
himself while out partridge-shooting.

Sir R. Murchison, addressing the Royal Geographical Society that
year, speaks of Speke's discovery of the source of the Nile as
solving the "problem of all ages."

Only two books were published by Speke--the "Journal" of 1863,
which follows, and its sequel--"What Led to the Discovery of the
Source of the Nile," which appeared in the year of his death,
1864.

Introduction.

In the following pages I have endeavoured to describe all that
appeared to me most important and interesting among the events
and the scenes that came under my notice during my sojourn in the
interior of Africa. If my account should not entirely harmonise
with preconceived notions as to primitive races, I cannot help
it. I profess accurately to describe native Africa--Africa in
those places where it has not received the slightest impulse,
whether for good or evil, from European civilisation. If the
picture be a dark one, we should, when contemplating these sons
of Noah, try and carry our mind back to that time when our poor
elder brother Ham was cursed by his father, and condemned to be
the slave of both Shem and Japheth; for as they were then, so
they appear to be now-- a strikingly existing proof of the Holy
Scriptures. But one thing must be remembered: Whilst the people
of Europe and Asia were blessed by communion with God through the
medium of His prophets, and obtained divine laws to regulate
their ways and keep them in mind of Him who made them, the
Africans were excluded from this dispensation, and consequently
have no idea of an overruling Providence or a future state; they
therefore trust to luck and to charms, and think only of self-
preservation in this world. Whatever, then, may be said against
them for being too avaricious or too destitute of fellow-feeling,
should rather reflect on ourselves, who have been so much better
favoured, yet have neglected to teach them, than on those who,
whilst they are sinning, know not what they are doing. To say a
negro is incapable of instruction, is a mere absurdity; for those
few boys who have been educated in our schools have proved
themselves even quicker than our own at learning; whilst, amongst
themselves, the deepness of their cunning and their power of
repartee are quite surprising, and are especially shown in their
proficiency for telling lies most appropriately in preference to
truth, and with an off-handed manner that makes them most
amusing.

With these remarks, I now give, as an appropriate introduction to
my narrative--(1.) An account of the general geographical
features of the countries we are about to travel in, leaving the
details to be treated under each as we successively pass through
them; (2.) A general view of the atmospheric agents which wear
down and so continually help to reduce the continent, yet at the
same time assist to clothe it with vegetation; (3.) A general
view of the Flora; and, lastly, that which consumes it, (4.) Its
Fauna; ending with a few special remarks on the Wanguana, or men
freed from slavery.

Geography

The continent of Africa is something like a dish turned upside
down, having a high and flat central plateau, with a higher rim
of hills surrounding it; from below which, exterially, it
suddenly slopes down to the flat strip of land bordering on the
sea. A dish, however, is generally uniform in shape--Africa is
not. For instance, we find in its centre a high group of hills
surrounding the head of the Tanganyika Lake, composed chiefly of
argillaceous sandstones which I suppose to be the Lunae Montes of
Ptolemy, or the Soma Giri of the ancient Hindus. Further,
instead of a rim at the northern end, the country shelves down
from the equator to the Mediterranean Sea; and on the general
surface of the interior plateau there are basins full of water
(lakes), from which, when rains overflow them, rivers are formed,
that, cutting through the flanking rim of hills, find their way
to the sea.

Atmospheric Agents

On the east coast, near Zanzibar, we find the rains following the
track of the sun, and lasting not more than forty days on any
part that the sun crosses; whilst the winds blow from south-west
or north-east, towards the regions heated by its vertical
position. But in the centre of the continent, within 5§ of the
equator, we find the rains much more lasting. For instance, at
5§ south latitude, for the whole six months that the sun is in
the south, rain continues to fall, and I have heard that the same
takes place at 5§ north; whilst on the equator, or rather a
trifle to northward of it, it rains more or less the whole year
round, but most at the equinoxes, as shown in the table on the
following page. The winds, though somewhat less steady, are
still very determinable. With an easterly tending, they deflect
north and south, following the sun. In the drier season they blow
so cold that the sun's heat is not distressing; and in
consequence of this, and the average altitude of the plateau,
which is 3000 feet, the general temperature of the atmosphere is
very pleasant, as I found from experience; for I walked every
inch of the journey dressed in thick woollen clothes, and slept
every night between blankets.

The Number of Days on which Rain fell (more or less) during the
March of the East African Expedition from Zanzibar to Gondokoro.

1860 Days on 1861 Days on 1862 Days on
which which which
rain fell rain fell rain fell

*** *** January 19 January 14
*** *** February 21 February[FN#1]12
*** *** March 17 March 21
*** *** April 17 April 27
*** *** May 3 May 26
*** *** June 0 June 20
*** *** July 1 July 22
*** *** August 1 August 20
*** *** September 9 September 18
October 2 October 11 October 27
November 0 November 17 November 20
December 20 December 16 December 6

Flora

From what has been said regarding the condition of the
atmosphere, it may readily be imagined that Africa, in those
parts, after all, is not so bad as people supposed it was; for,
when so much moisture falls under a vertical sun, all vegetable
life must grow up almost spontaneously. It does so on the
equator in the most profuse manner; but down at 5§ south, where
there are six months' drought, the case is somewhat different;
and the people would be subject to famines if they did not take
advantage of their rainy season to lay in sufficient stores for
the fine: and here we touch on the misfortune of the country; for
the negro is too lazy to do so effectively, owing chiefly, as we
shall see presently, to want of a strong protecting government.
One substantial fact has been established, owing to our having
crossed over ten degrees of latitude in the centre of the
continent, or from 5§ south to 5§ north latitude, which is this:
There exists a regular gradation of fertility, surprisingly rich
on the equator, but decreasing systematically from it; and the
reason why this great fertile zone is confined to the equatorial
regions, is the same as that which has constituted it the great
focus of water or lake supply, whence issue the principal rivers
of Africa. On the equator lie the rainbearing influences of the
Mountains of the Moon. The equatorial line is, in fact, the
centre of atmospheric motion.

Fauna

In treating of this branch of natural history, we will first take
man--the true curly-head, flab-nosed, pouch-mouthed negro--not
the Wahuma.[FN#2] They are well distributed all over these
latitudes, but are not found anywhere in dense communities.
Their system of government is mostly of the patriarchal
character. Some are pastorals, but most are agriculturalists;
and this difference, I believe, originates solely from want of a
stable government, to enable them to reap what they produce; for
where the negro can save his cattle, which is his wealth, by
eating grain, he will do it. In the same way as all animals,
whether wild or tame, require a guide to lead their flocks, so do
the negroes find it necessary to have chiefs over their villages
and little communities, who are their referees on all domestic or
political questions. They have both their district and their
village chiefs, but, in the countries we are about to travel
over, no kings such as we shall find that the Wahuma have. The
district chief is absolute, though guided in great measure by his
"grey-beards," who constantly attend his residence, and talk over
their affairs of state. These commonly concern petty internal
matters; for they are too selfish and too narrow-minded to care
for anything but their own private concerns. The grey-beards
circulate the orders of the chief amongst the village chiefs, who
are fined when they do not comply with them; and hence all orders
are pretty well obeyed.

One thing only tends to disorganise the country, and that is war,
caused, in the first instance, by polygamy, producing a family of
half-brothers, who, all aspiring to succeed their father, fight
continually with one another, and make their chief aim slaves and
cattle; whilst, in the second instance, slavery keeps them ever
fighting and reducing their numbers. The government revenues are
levied, on a very small scale, exclusively for the benefit of the
chief and his grey-beards. For instance, as a sort of land-tax,
the chief has a right to drink free from the village brews of
pombe (a kind of beer made by fermentation), which are made in
turn by all the villagers successively. In case of an elephant
being killed, he also takes a share of the meat, and claims one
of its tusks as his right; further, all leopard, lion, or zebra
skins are his by right. On merchandise brought into the country
by traders, he has a general right to make any exactions he
thinks he has the power of enforcing, without any regard to
justice or a regulated tariff. This right is called Hongo, in the
plural Mahongo. Another source of revenue is in the effects of
all people condemned for sorcery, who are either burnt, or
speared and cast into the jungles, and their property seized by
the grey-beards for their chief.

As to punishments, all irreclaimable thieves or murderers are
killed and disposed of in the same manner as these sorcerers;
whilst on minor thieves a penalty equivalent to the extent of the
depredation is levied. Illicit intercourse being treated as
petty larceny, a value is fixed according to the value of the
woman--for it must be remembered all women are property. Indeed,
marriages are considered a very profitable speculation, the
girl's hand being in the father's gift, who marries her to any
one who will pay her price. This arrangement, however, is not
considered a simple matter of buying and selling, but delights in
the high-sounding title of "dowry." Slaves, cows, goats, fowls,
brass wire, or beads, are the usual things given for this species
of dowry. The marriage-knot, however, is never irretrievably
tied; for if the wife finds a defect in her husband, she can
return to her father by refunding the dowry; whilst the husband,
if he objects to his wife, can claim half-price on sending her
home again, which is considered fair, because as a second-hand
article her future value would be diminished by half. By this
system, it must be observed, polygamy is a source of wealth,
since a man's means are measured by the number of his progeny;
but it has other advantages besides the dowry, for the women work
more than the men do, both in and out of doors; and, in addition
to the females, the sons work for the household until they marry,
and in after life take care of their parents in the same way as
in the first instance the parents took care of them.

Twins are usually hailed with delight, because they swell the
power of the family, though in some instances they are put to
death. Albinos are valued, though their colour is not admired.
If death occurs in a natural manner, the body is usually either
buried in the village or outside. A large portion of the negro
races affect nudity, despising clothing as effeminate; but these
are chiefly the more boisterous roving pastorals, who are too
lazy either to grow cotton or strip the trees of their bark.
Their young women go naked; but the mothers suspend a little tail
both before and behind. As the hair of the negro will not grow
long, a barber might be dispensed with, were it not that they
delight in odd fashions, and are therefore continually either
shaving it off altogether, or else fashioning it after the most
whimsical designs. No people in the world are so proud and
headstrong as the negroes, whether they be pastoral or
agriculturalists. With them, as with the rest of the world,
"familiarity breeds contempt"; hospitality lives only one day;
for though proud of a rich or white visitor--and they implore him
to stop, that they may keep feeding their eyes on his
curiosities--they seldom give more than a cow or a goat, though
professing to supply a whole camp with provisions.

Taking the negroes as a whole, one does not find very marked or
much difference in them. Each tribe has its characteristics, it
is true. For instance, one cuts his teeth or tattoos his face in
a different manner from the others; but by the constant
intermarriage with slaves, much of this effect is lost, and it is
further lost sight of owing to the prevalence of migrations
caused by wars and the division of governments. As with the
tribal marks so with their weapons; those most commonly in use
are the spear, assage, shield, bow and arrow. It is true some
affect one, some the other; but in no way do we see that the
courage of tribes can be determined by the use of any particular
weapon: for the bravest use the arrow, which is the more dreaded;
while the weakest confine themselves to the spear. Lines of
traffic are the worst tracks (there are no roads in the districts
here referred to) for a traveller to go upon, not only because
the hospitality of the people has been damped by frequent
communication with travellers, but, by intercourse with the semi-
civilised merchant, their natural honour and honesty are
corrupted, their cupidity is increased, and the show of firearms
ceases to frighten them.

Of paramount consideration is the power held by the magician
(Mganga), who rules the minds of the kings as did the old popes
of Europe. They, indeed, are a curse to the traveller; for if it
suits their inclinations to keep him out of the country, they
have merely to prognosticate all sorts of calamities--as
droughts, famines, or wars--in the event of his setting eyes on
the soil, and the chiefs, people, and all, would believe them;
for, as may be imagined, with men unenlightened, supernatural and
imaginary predictions work with more force than substantial
reasons. Their implement of divination, simple as it may appear,
is a cow's or antelope's horn (Uganga), which they stuff with
magic powder, also called Uganga. Stuck into the ground in front
of the village, it is supposed to have sufficient power to ward
off the attacks of an enemy.

By simply holding it in the hand, the magician pretends he can
discover anything that has been stolen or lost; and instances
have been told of its dragging four men after it with
irresistible impetus up to a thief, when it be-laboured the
culprit and drove him out of his senses. So imbued are the
natives' minds with belief in the power of charms, that they pay
the magician for sticks, stones, or mud, which he has doctored
for them. They believe certain flowers held in the hand will
conduct them to anything lost; as also that the voice of certain
wild animals, birds, or beasts, will insure them good-luck, or
warn them of danger. With the utmost complacency our sable
brother builds a dwarf hut in his fields, and places some grain
on it to propitiate the evil spirit, and suffer him to reap the
fruits of his labour, and this too they call Uganga or church.

These are a few of the more innocent alternatives the poor
negroes resort to in place of a "Saviour." They have also many
other and more horrible devices. For instance, in times of
tribulation, the magician, if he ascertains a war is projected by
inspecting the blood and bones of a fowl which he has flayed for
that purpose, flays a young child, and having laid it lengthwise
on a path, directs all the warriors, on proceeding to battle, to
step over his sacrifice and insure themselves victory. Another
of these extra barbarous devices takes place when a chief wishes
to make war on his neighbour by his calling in a magician to
discover a propitious time for commencing. The doctor places a
large earthen vessel, half full of water, over a fire, and over
its mouth a grating of sticks, whereon he lays a small child and
a fowl side by side, and covers them over with a second large
earthen vessel, just like the first, only inverted, to keep the
steam in, when he sets fire below, cooks for a certain period of
time, and then looks to see if his victims are still living or
dead--when, should they be dead, the war must be deferred, but,
otherwise commenced at once.

These extremes, however, are not often resorted to, for the
natives are usually content with simpler means, such as flaying a
goat, instead of a child, to be walked over; while, to prevent
any evil approaching their dwellings a squashed frog, or any
other such absurdity, when place on the track, is considered a
specific.

How the negro has lived so many ages without advancing, seems
marvellous, when all the countries surrounding Africa are so
forward in comparison; and judging from the progressive state of
the world, one is led to suppose that the African must soon
either step out from his darkness, or be superseded by a being
superior to himself. Could a government be formed for them like
ours in India, they would be saved; but without it, I fear there
is very little chance; for at present the African neither can
help himself nor will he be helped about by others, because his
country is in such a constant state of turmoil he has too much
anxiety on hand looking out for his food to think of anything
else. As his fathers ever did, so does he. He works his wife,
sells his children, enslaves all he can lay hands upon, and,
unless when fighting for the property of others, contents himself
with drinking, singing, and dancing like a baboon to drive dull
care away. A few only make cotton cloth, or work in wood, iron,
copper, or salt; their rule being to do as little as possible,
and to store up nothing beyond the necessities of the next
season, lest their chiefs or neighbours should covet and take it
from them.

Slavery, I may add, is one great cause of laziness, for the
masters become too proud to work, lest they should be thought
slaves themselves. In consequence of this, the women look after
the household work--such as brewing, cooking, grinding corn,
making pottery and baskets, and taking care of the house and the
children, besides helping the slaves whilst cultivating, or even
tending the cattle sometimes.

Now, descending to the inferior order of creation, I shall
commence with the domestic animals first, to show what the
traveller may expect to find for his usual support. Cows, after
leaving the low lands near the coast, are found to be plentiful
everywhere, and to produce milk in small quantities, from which
butter is made. Goats are common all over Africa; but sheep are
not so plentiful, nor do they show such good breeding--being
generally lanky, with long fat tails. Fowls, much like those in
India, are abundant everywhere. A few Muscovy ducks are
imported, also pigeons and cats. Dogs, like the Indian pariah,
are very plentiful, only much smaller; and a few donkeys are
found in certain localities. Now, considering this good supply
of meat, whilst all tropical plants will grow just as well in
central equatorial Africa as they do in India, it surprises the
traveller there should be any famines; yet such is too often the
case, and the negro, with these bounties within his reach, is
sometimes found eating dogs, cats, rats, porcupines, snakes,
lizards, tortoises, locusts, and white ants, or is forced to seek
the seeds of wild grasses, or to pluck wild herbs, fruits, and
roots; whilst at the proper seasons they hunt the wild elephant,
buffalo, giraffe, zebra, pigs, and antelopes; or, going out with
their arrows, have battues against the guinea-fowls and small
birds.

The frequency with which collections of villages are found all
over the countries we are alluding to, leaves but very little
scope for the runs of wild animals, which are found only in dense
jungles, open forests, or praires generally speaking, where hills
can protect them, and near rivers whose marshes produce a thick
growth of vegetation to conceal them from their most dreaded
enemy--man. The prowling, restless elephant, for instance, though
rarely seen, leaves indications of his nocturnal excursions in
every wilderness, by wantonly knocking down the forest-trees.
The morose rhinoceros, though less numerous, are found in every
thick jungle. So is the savage buffalo, especially delighting in
dark places, where he can wallow in the mud and slake his thirst
without much trouble; and here also we find the wild pig.

The gruff hippopotamus is as widespread as any, being found
wherever there is water to float him; whilst the shy giraffe and
zebra affect all open forests and plains where the grass is not
too long; and antelopes, of great variety in species and habits,
are found wherever man will let them alone and they can find
water. The lion is, however, rarely heard--much more seldom
seen. Hyenas are numerous, and thievishly inclined. Leopards,
less common, are the terror of the villagers. Foxes are not
numerous, but frighten the black traveller by their ill-omened
bark. Hares, about half the size of English ones--there are no
rabbits--are widely spread, but not numerous; porcupines the
same. Wild cats, and animals of the ferret kind, destroy game.
Monkeys of various kinds and squirrels harbour in the trees, but
are rarely seen. Tortoises and snakes, in great variety, crawl
over the ground, mostly after the rains. Rats and lizards--there
are but few mice--are very abundant, and feed both in the fields
and on the stores of the men.